Ancient idols of Lord Mallinath worshiped in female form

My longstanding interest in history has often led me to aspects of Jain antiquity that are both intricate and intellectually stimulating. Among these, few debates are as enduring as the sectarian disagreement regarding the gender of the nineteenth Tirthankar, Shri Mallinath Bhagwan. The two principal Jain traditions, the Shwetambar and the Digambar, hold divergent views on whether Mallinath was male or female.

The Shwetambar tradition (as well as the extinct Yapania tradition) affirms that Shri Mallinath was born as a female and attained Moksh in the same form. They refer to several scriptural authorities that uphold the possibility of women achieving liberation and consider the birth of a female Tirthankar as an acchera or an extraordinary occurrence within the present cosmic cycle. The Digambar tradition, on the other hand, maintains that complete renunciation, including the abandonment of all possessions such as clothing—is an essential precondition for liberation. Since Digambar monastic conduct precludes women from such renunciation, they conclude that a female cannot attain Moksh and therefore cannot become a Tirthankar.

It is also significant that, although the Shwetambar tradition believes Shri Mallinath to have been female, they generally do not worship Mallinath’s idol in a female form. Three principal reasons are cited:

1. Worship is directed toward the purified, vitraag soul of the Tirthankar, not the corporeal form; hence gender depiction is considered irrelevant.
2. Representing the female anatomy on a Tirthankar idol is viewed as inconsistent with traditional standards of modesty.
3. Over time, as human tendencies became more susceptible to sensory distraction, it was deemed that a female-form idol might hinder the cultivation of vairagya (dispassion).

Consequently, Shwetambar tradition depicts Mallinath in the same stylistic pattern as the other Tirthankars.

Without entering into the theological dimensions of this debate, this article seeks to highlight a lesser-known but significant historical fact: both Shwetambar and Digambar traditions have, at various points in antiquity, installed and worshipped idols of Shri Mallinath in explicitly female form. Presented below are more than ten documented instances:  archaeological, iconographic, and artistic, that indicate the historical prevalence of such worship.

 
1. 1500-year-old Idol Excavated in 2002 (Madhubani District, Bihar): A report in the newspaper Hindustan (4 July 2002) describes the excavation of a stone idol of Mallinath Bhagwan from Akaur Basti, measuring 2 inches by 0.5 inches. The idol, fully clothed and bearing long braided hair and developed breasts, was dated to the 5th century CE by historian Dr. Satyanarayan Thakur of C.M. College, Darbhanga. 

2. Headless Idol (7th Century) in Lucknow Museum - The Provincial Museum in Lucknow houses a black-stone idol of Mallinath in padmasan posture. Though headless due to historical destruction, the idol depicts pronounced breasts in the front and the reverse side clearly depicts braided hair . The lanchan—a partially defaced kumbh—is still visible. Iconography scholar Dr. Umakant Premanand Shah confirms the identification of the idol as Mallinath Bhagwan but notes that its sectarian affiliation (Shwetambar or Digambar) cannot be determined as the idol is completely nude.

Front view of the idol of Lord Mallinath preserved in Lucknow Museum

Back view of the idol of Lord Mallinath preserved in Lucknow Museum

3. Idol at Digambar Jain Temple, Keshavrai Patan (Bundi Dist. Rajasthan) – This large idol of Mallinath Bhagwan dating back to 1,000 years is seated within a beautiful Parikar with the Ashtapratiharya. While this idol has both the Shwetambar and Digambar elements to it, it is unmistakably female (see image below). Although no trace of clothes can be found, Kundal’s (ear-rings) have been carved on the face. The said temple also has another such image in female form which can also be attributed to Shri Mallinath Bhagwan

Ancient idol of Lord Mallinath

Ancient idol of Lord Mallinath (close-up)

Another similar feminine-form idol at the same site can also be attributed to Mallinath Bhagwan

4. 1,800 year old Terracotta idol in Khulna Museum, Bangladesh – Excavated by the Archaeology Department of Bangladesh in December 2007, this 7-inch red sandstone terracotta idol from Damdampir (Jessore) depicts Mallinath Bhagwan in pre- ascetic form with flowing hair. Although the lanchan is absent, the accompanying inscription clearly names the Tirthankar as Mallinath

Idol of Lord Mallinath excavated from Bangladesh

5. Ancient idol from Guna, Madhya Pradesh – An ancient 9-inch idol of Mallinath Bhagwan with braided hair and developed breasts was discovered from Guna area in Jabalpur District. It is currently in custody of Archaeology Department, Madhya Pradesh.

Idol of Mallinath Bhagwan in female form at Guna, Madhya Pradesh

6. Ancient idol at Kangra Museum: An ancient headless idol of Mallinath Bhagwan with developed breasts dating to 10th Century was found from Kangra, Himachal Pradesh and now housed at Kangra Museum.

Headless idol of Mallinath Bhagwan in female form at Kangra, Himachal Pradesh

7. Metal idol at Fungani – A panchdhatu idol installed in the Adinath Jain Shwetambar temple at Fungani village depicts Mallinath in ardhapadmasan posture, with open hair, jewellery, and clearly carved breasts.

Idol of Lord Mallinath at Fungani

8. Idols worshipped by Tamil Digambar Jains - Several idols of Mallinath Bhagwan from Perumbugai, Mannargudi, Perumbukha, Goonampadi, and related sites exhibit elevated breasts. Given that Tamil Jains historically followed the Digambar tradition, these idols likely reflect a regional acceptance of the feminine form of Mallinath Bhagwan.

Shri Mallinath Bhagwan in female form at Perumbugai, Viluppuram district of Tamil Nadu (Source: ahimsayatrai.com/ Bhushan Shah)

Shri Mallinath Bhagwan in female form at Mannargudi, Thiruvarur district of Tamil Nadu (Source: Bhushan Shah)

Shri Mallinath Bhagwan in female form at Senchi, Viluppuram district of Tamil Nadu (Source: Dinamalar.com/ Bhushan Shah)

Paintings depicting Shri Mallinath Bhagwan as female, Goonampadi, Tamil Nadu (Source: ahimsayatrai.com/ Bhushan Shah)

9. 18th Century Painting of Rishimandal yantra in Rajasthan - A rare Shwetambar painting of the Rishimandal yantra depicts a female form of Mallinath Bhagwan standing prominently within the structure of the bija mantra "HrIm." The Tirthankar is marked with the kumbh symbol—uniquely highlighted—while the remaining twenty-three Tirthankars are unaccompanied by their lanchans. The deliberate prominence given to Mallinath in this diagram distinguishes it from its Digambar counterparts. The artwork remains in a private collection.

18th Century painting of the Rishimandal Yantra

Hrim zoomed in the right with Lord Mallinath placed in "i". 

10. Idol from Bhoyani Tirth (Near Ahmedabad): Local tradition surrounding the ancient idol discovered at Bhoyani tirth approximately 140 years ago identifies it as having feminine facial features, although it follows the broader uniformity of Tirthankar iconography.

Shri Mallinath Bhagwan, Bhoyani Tirth

The examples outlined above suggest that, historically, the feminine form of Tirthankar Mallinath was not only known but also venerated across regions and sects within the Jain community. Whether contemporary practice should reintroduce feminine-form idols or adhere to existing conventions remains a matter for reflection within each tradition.

Ultimately, as Jain philosophy emphasises, worship is directed toward the liberated, formless soul—not the physical representation. The purpose of this study is not to provoke sectarian sensitivities but to document and highlight the substantial historical and archaeological evidence indicating that the worship of Tirthankar Mallinath in feminine form was an established practice in earlier periods of Jain tradition.

Sources:

1. Anusandhan Newsletter by Acharya Vijayshilchandrasuri. April 2003
2. Hindustan (newspaper), 4th July 2002
3. Namo Titthasa Newsletter by Lalit Nahata, February 2003
4. A rare sculpture of Mallinath, Dr. U.P. Shah (1987, pp. 159-160). Plate LVII
5. Daily Star News, Bangladesh, 29th December 2007.
6. Shades of Enlightenment- A Jain Tantric Diagram and the Colours of the Tīrthaṅkaras, Ellen Gough, International Journal of Jaina Studies Vol. 8, No. 1 (2012) 
7. Gender and Salvation, Jaina Debates on the Spiritual Liberation of Women by Padmanabh S. Jaini (1991)
8. Online resources - Jainsite.com / Jainelibrary.com / Jinalaya.com